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Demographics of Montreal

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Demographics of Montreal concern population growth and structure for Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The information is analyzed by Statistics Canada and compiled every five years, with the most recent census having taken place in 2021.

Population history

[edit]
Population of Montreal, and Metropolitan Area by year[1]
Year City[2] Island[3][4] Metropolitan[2]
1660 407
1663 596
1666 624
1681 1,389
1700 2,969
1760 8,300
1771 9,770
1781 17,945
1791 18,000
1801 9,000
1811 13,300
1821 18,767
1831 27,297
1841 40,356
1851 57,715
1861 90,323
1871 130,022 144,044 174,090
1881 176,263 193,171 223,512
1891 254,278 277,525 308,169
1901 325,653 360,838 393,665
1911 490,504 554,761 594,812
1921 618,506 724,205 774,330
1931 818,577 1,003,868 1,064,448
1941 903,007 1,116,800 1,192,235
1951 1,021,520 1,320,232 1,539,308
1956 1,109,439 1,507,653 1,745,001
1961 1,201,559 1,747,696 2,110,679
1966 1,293,992 1,923,971 2,570,985
1971 1,214,352 1,958,595 2,743,208
1976 1,080,545 1,869,645 2,802,485
1981 1,018,609 1,760,120 2,862,286
1986 1,015,420 1,752,361 2,921,357
1991 1,017,666 1,775,871 3,127,242
1996 1,016,376 1,775,778 3,326,447
2001 1,039,534 1,812,723 3,426,350
2006 1,620,693 1,854,442 3,635,571
2011 1,649,519 1,886,481 3,824,221
2016 1,704,694 1,942,044 4,098,927
2021 1,762,949 2,004,265 4,291,732

According to Statistics Canada, at the time of the 2011 Canadian census the city of Montreal proper had 1,649,519 inhabitants.[5] A total of 3,824,221 lived in the Montreal Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) at the same 2011 census, up from 3,635,556 at the 2006 census (within 2006 CMA boundaries), which means a population growth rate of +5.2% between 2006 and 2011.[6] Montreal's 2012-2013 population growth rate was 1.135%, compared with 1.533% for all Canadian CMAs.[7]

In the 2006 census, children under 14 years of age (621,695) constituted 17.1%, while inhabitants over 65 years of age (495,685) numbered 13.6% of the total population.[8]

Future projections

[edit]

The current estimate of the Montreal CMA population, as of July 1, 2013, according to Statistics Canada is 3,981,802.[9] According to StatsCan, by 2030, the Greater Montreal Area is expected to number 5,275,000 with 1,722,000 being visible minorities.[10]

Ethnic diversity

[edit]

City of Montreal

[edit]
Pie chart showing Montreal's visible minority composition (data from Canada Census 2006).

According to the 2021 census, some 38.8% of the population of Montreal[11] and 27.2% that of Metro Montreal,[12] are members of a visible minority (non-white) group.[13] Blacks (198,610 persons or 11.5%) contribute to the largest minority group, with Montreal having the 2nd highest number of black people in Canada after Toronto, as well as having the highest concentrations of black people amongst major Canadian cities.[11] Other groups, such as Arabs (141,935 persons or 8.2%), South Asians (79,670 persons or 4.6%), Latin Americans (78,150 persons or 4.5%), and Chinese (56,935 persons or 3.3%) are also large in number.[11][14][13][15] Visible minorities are defined by the Canadian Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginals, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour."[16]

Panethnic groups in the City of Montreal (2001−2021)
Panethnic
group 		2021[11] 2016[17] 2011[18] 2006[19] 2001[20]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
European[a] 1,038,940 60.29% 1,082,620 65.09% 1,092,465 67.74% 1,171,295 73.49% 784,420 76.92%
African 198,610 11.53% 171,385 10.3% 147,100 9.12% 122,880 7.71% 68,245 6.69%
Middle Eastern[b] 159,435 9.25% 137,525 8.27% 114,780 7.12% 76,910 4.83% 34,035 3.34%
South Asian 79,670 4.62% 55,595 3.34% 53,515 3.32% 51,255 3.22% 33,310 3.27%
Latin American 78,150 4.54% 67,525 4.06% 67,160 4.16% 53,970 3.39% 31,190 3.06%
Southeast Asian[c] 65,260 3.79% 58,315 3.51% 61,320 3.8% 47,950 3.01% 33,505 3.29%
East Asian[d] 64,825 3.76% 61,400 3.69% 52,195 3.24% 52,650 3.3% 25,810 2.53%
Indigenous 15,315 0.89% 12,035 0.72% 9,510 0.59% 7,600 0.48% 3,555 0.35%
Other[e] 23,010 1.34% 16,835 1.01% 14,585 0.9% 9,205 0.58% 5,675 0.56%
Total responses 1,723,230 97.75% 1,663,225 97.57% 1,612,640 97.76% 1,593,725 98.34% 1,019,735 98.1%
Total population 1,762,949 100% 1,704,694 100% 1,649,519 100% 1,620,693 100% 1,039,534 100%
  • Note: Totals greater than 100% due to multiple origin responses.
Visible minority and Indigenous population in the City of Montreal
Group 2021[11] 2016[17] 2011[18] 2006[19] 2001[20]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Visible minority 668,975 38.8% 568,570 34.2% 510,665 31.7% 414,830 26% 231,760 22.7%
Indigenous 15,315 0.9% 12,035 0.7% 9,510 0.6% 7,600 0.5% 3,555 0.3%
Visible minorities and Indigenous peoples in the City of Montreal
(2021 Census)
Population group Population % of total population
Visible
minority[11] 		Black 198,610 11.5%
Arab 141,935 8.2%
South Asian 79,670 4.6%
Latin American 78,150 4.5%
Chinese 56,935 3.3%
Southeast Asian 37,905 2.2%
Filipino 27,355 1.6%
West Asian 17,500 1%
Korean 5,245 0.3%
Japanese 2,645 0.2%
Mixed visible minority 17,540 1%
Visible minority, n.i.e. 5,470 0.3%
Total visible minority population 668,975 38.8%
Indigenous[11] First Nations 8,065 0.5%
Métis 5,705 0.3%
Inuit 545 0%
Other 1,000 0.1%
Total Indigenous population 15,315 0.9%
European[a] 1,038,940 60.3%
Total responses 1,723,230 97.7%
Total population 1,762,949 100%

Metro Montreal

[edit]
Panethnic groups in Metro Montreal (2001−2021)
Panethnic
group 		2021[21][12] 2016[22] 2011[23] 2006[24] 2001[25] 1996[26][27] 1981[26][27]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
European[f] 3,059,895 72.74% 3,070,210 76.57% 2,963,860 78.98% 2,980,280 83.05% 2,911,230 86.11% — — — —
African 340,140 8.09% 270,940 6.76% 216,310 5.76% 169,065 4.71% 139,305 4.12% 122,320 3.72% — — —
Middle Eastern[b] 285,615 6.79% 220,055 5.49% 172,345 4.59% 113,405 3.16% 79,410 2.35% 73,950 2.25% — — —
Latin American 137,850 3.28% 110,195 2.75% 98,010 2.61% 75,400 2.1% 53,155 1.57% 46,700 1.42% — — —
South Asian 121,260 2.88% 85,925 2.14% 79,540 2.12% 70,615 1.97% 57,935 1.71% 37,600 1.14% — — —
East Asian[d] 116,820 2.78% 100,265 2.5% 83,420 2.22% 79,665 2.22% 58,165 1.72% 51,930 1.58% — — —
Southeast Asian[c] 101,560 2.41% 88,755 2.21% 89,645 2.39% 68,475 1.91% 57,460 1.7% 46,165 1.4% — — —
Indigenous 46,085 1.1% 34,745 0.87% 26,285 0.7% 17,865 0.5% 11,085 0.33% — — — —
Other/Multiracial[e] 40,565 0.96% 28,710 0.72% 23,060 0.61% 13,755 0.38% 12,900 0.38% 8,360 0.25% — — —
Total: Visible minority 1,143,810 27.2% 904,845 22.6% 762,330 20.3% 590,380 16.5% 458,330 13.5% — 12.2% — 5.2%
Total responses 4,206,455 98.01% 4,009,795 97.83% 3,752,470 98.12% 3,588,520 98.71% 3,380,645 98.67% — — — —
Total population 4,291,732 100% 4,098,927 100% 3,824,221 100% 3,635,571 100% 3,426,350 100% — 100% — 100%
Note: Totals greater than 100% due to multiple origin responses
Top 25 Ethnic Origins in Montreal CMA (2016)
Includes Multiple Responses[28]
Ethnic origin Population Percentage
Canadian 1,670,655 43.8%
French 870,245 21.7%
Italian 279,800 7.0%
Irish 239,460 6.0%
English 138,320 3.4%
Haitian 132,255 3.3%
Scottish 124,130 3.1%
Chinese 108,775 2.7%
First Nations 101,915 2.5%
Québécois 92,115 2.3%
German 86,025 2.1%
Algerian 84,585 2.1%
Moroccan 77,450 1.9%
Spanish 68,600 1.7%
Greek 66,395 1.7%
Lebanese 68,765 1.7%
Polish 64,895 1.6%
Portuguese 56,405 1.4%
Russian 49,275 1.2%
East Indian 48,485 1.2%
Romanian 47,980 1.2%
Vietnamese 38,660 1.0%
Filipino 35,685 0.9%
Ukrainian 35,050 0.8%
Belgian 31,840 0.8%

Future projections

[edit]
Panethnic origin projections (2041)
2041[29][30][31][32]
Population %
European[nb 1] 3,249,000 58.97%
African 673,000 12.21%
Middle Eastern[b] 597,000 10.83%
East Asian[d] 252,000 4.57%
Latin American 213,000 3.87%
South Asian 195,000 3.54%
Southeast Asian[c] 167,000 3.03%
Indigenous 87,000 1.58%
Other/multiracial 76,000 1.38%
Projected Metro Montreal Population 5,510,000 100%

Ethnic groups

[edit]

Aboriginals

[edit]

34,745 Aboriginals live in Montreal.[33]

European

[edit]
French
[edit]
Main articles: French-speaking Quebecer and French Canadian

Montreal is the cultural centre of Quebec, French-speaking Canada and French-speaking North America as a whole, and an important city in the Francophonie. The majority of the population is francophone. Montreal is the largest French-speaking city in North America, and second in the world after Paris when counting the number of native-language Francophones (third after Paris and Kinshasa when counting second-language speakers). The city is a hub for French language television productions, radio, theatre, circuses, performing arts, film, multimedia and print publishing.

Montreal plays a prominent role in the development of French-Canadian and Québécois culture. Its contribution to culture is therefore more of a society-building endeavour rather than limited to civic influence. The best talents from French Canada and even the French-speaking areas of the United States converge in Montreal and often perceive the city as their cultural capital. Montreal is also the most important stop in the Americas for Francophone artists from Europe, Africa and Asia.

The cultural divide between Canada's Francophone and Anglophone culture is strong and was famously referred to as the "Two Solitudes" by Canadian writer Hugh MacLennan. Reflecting their deep-seated colonial roots, the Solitudes were historically strongly entrenched in Montreal, splitting the city geographically at Saint Laurent Boulevard.

British Isles
[edit]
Main articles: English-speaking Quebecer and English Canadian

Montreal is the focal point of Quebec's English-speaking community. Arriving in waves from the United Kingdom and eventually the entire British Commonwealth, the historical English-speaking community in Montreal includes Quebecers of English, Scottish, and Irish origin (as reflected in the city's flag) as well as Loyalists, escaped slaves, and immigrants from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent.[34]

With the advent of mass migration from beyond the confines of the British Empire, the English-speaking community in Montreal expanded to include a huge array of different cultures and ethnic groups. Since Chinese, Jewish, Greek, and other non-Catholic immigrants were barred from attending French-language Catholic schools under the Confessional school system, they attended English-language Protestant schools instead and became acculturated into the English-speaking community. This trend was boosted by the Catholic Church's policy, called la Revanche des berceaux or the "Revenge of the Cradle", of encouraging French-Canadians to maintain a very high birth-rate in order to bolster the community's demographic weight in Canada. This policy, along with the Church's traditional mistrust of entrepreneurship and the business world, caused French-Canadians in Quebec to remain largely poor and rural while shunning immigration in an attempt to resist assimilation. Immigrants who arrived prior to the Quiet Revolution therefore largely assimilated into the increasingly diverse English-speaking community in Montreal, while the city's French-speaking community remained largely white, French, and Catholic, growing through high birth rates and migration from the countryside rather than immigration.[35][36]

During the Quiet Revolution, French Quebecers left the Church en masse and birth rates fell drastically as they began to question the Duplessis-era establishment's legitimacy.[37] This awakening coincided with the arrival of a massive wave of Italian immigrants who, despite being Catholic, demanded English-language training and bilingual schools for their children. This community's desire to see its children, like those of fellow immigrant groups and the English community, educated in the majority language of Canada rather than the language of an insular minority clashed directly with Quebec francophones' emergent self-image as a majority community within Quebec rather than a national minority within Canada. With birth-rates declining dramatically, French Quebecers wished to tap into immigration to maintain their share of the population and the government set its sights on the Italian community, leading to the Saint-Leonard Conflict in which the Italian community sought to maintain freedom of choice in education in the face of the government's demands that they send their children to French-language schools. The Government of Quebec intended to allow English-language schooling only for Quebec's "historical English minority", a move which the Italian community viewed as discriminatory.[38][39] The matter was eventually settled with the advent of Bill 101, which allowed anyone who arrived before 1976 to continue school in the language of their choice while requiring all new immigrants from outside Quebec (including English-speaking Canadians) to attend school in French; this last requirement, the so-called Quebec clause was eventually struck down by the Supreme Court and expanded to allow anyone who received the better part of their schooling in English in Canada to send their children to English school in Quebec (in practice, this complex formula was designed so as not to bestow a right to English education on anyone who was educated in an English-speaking country and later became a Canadian citizen).

Because of these developments, Montreal's English-speaking community today includes people of English and Commonwealth ancestry, as well as specific groups who arrived in waves before the advent of Bill 101. It is a highly diverse community, with many members having a complex and multi-layered sense of identity that does not easily conform to the Government's definitions of "anglophone", "allophone", and "francophone".[40]

The community is served by one daily newspaper, The Gazette, as well as a number of weeklies including The Suburban. Another major daily, the Montreal Star, was Canada's foremost English-language daily until it ceased publication in 1979 due to a labour dispute. The most-watched television news channel is CTV Montreal, formerly CFCF 12, and the community is also served by local desks at the CBC, Global, Citytv, and MaTV.

The English-speaking community in Montreal has traditionally been very pro-active in building up institutions in the areas of education and healthcare, most notably McGill and Concordia Universities and the McGill University Health Centre. With the advent of Bill 101, which made French the sole language of work, these institutions came to play a key role in maintaining the vitality and viability of the English-speaking community. Alliance Quebec, an advocacy group created to give voice to the concerns of the English-speaking community in the turbulent times following the election of the Parti Québécois in 1976, fought to give English-speakers the right to work as well. In a compromise, the government made provisions in Bill 101 for so-called "bilingual institutions", namely school boards, colleges and universities, and hospitals serving primarily the English-speaking community, which would be required only to ensure the provision of services in French without having to operate entirely in French as otherwise required by Bill 101. In effect, this allowed English speakers to maintain access to the workforce by giving them non-client-facing jobs, so long as the organization could still provide services in French. Because of this historical development, English-speaking Montrealers' identity is deeply entwined with the community's historical institutions.[41] Along similar lines, the Jewish General Hospital was founded by the largely-English speaking Jewish Community to provide jobs and ensure quality healthcare for the Jewish community (notably whilst serving any and all, regardless of race, religion, or creed) at a time when Jews were routinely excluded from the medical profession and discriminated against as patients within a denominational healthcare system.,[42] which actually occurred before the Quiet Revolution during English rule in Montreal (and indeed all of Quebec at the time).

Prominent venues in Montreal's English-speaking community include the Centaur Theatre and the Segal Centre for Performing Arts. Notable English-speaking Montrealers include Oliver Jones, Leonard Cohen, Oscar Peterson, William Shatner, Nick Auf der Maur, Melissa Auf der Maur, Mike Bossy, and Mordecai Richler.

The English-speaking community in Montreal is geographically fragmented along its diverse ethnic lines, with much of the English-speaking population concentrated in the suburban communities of the West Island. Traditionally, the city of Westmount and Montreal's Golden Square Mile were the home of the wealthy English merchant class. Other wealthy, largely English-speaking suburbs include the towns of Hampstead and Mount Royal, as well as the more middle class city of Côte-Saint-Luc, which is traditionally associated with the city's Jewish community. The working-class Irish community was associated with the rough neighborhoods of Pointe-Saint-Charles, Verdun and Saint-Henri, which continue to host successive waves of immigrant groups as they arrive and eventually spread throughout the city. Saint Laurent Boulevard is the traditional dividing line between the so-called Two Solitudes, with the English-speaking community to the West and the French-speaking community to the East, although these lines continue to blur. Along its length, St. Laurent (also known as "The Main") has hosted a wide variety of groups that eventually came to form the city's English-speaking community, from Chinatown in the South, through Little Portugal, where Leonard Cohen had his house, and into the Mile End, which housed the Jewish community upon its first arrival and also contained numerous factories in the Schmata Industry, as described by Mordecai Richler in his work, St. Urbain's Horseman. The Greek community settled further up The Main near Outremont and the Park Extension neighbourhood near Jean Talon Street (an area which today boasts a large South Asian community), while the Italian community settled first into the neighbourhood of Ahuntsic and later, St. Leonard, Montreal North, and Riviere des Prairies.

All of these groups have English as their first language of use and may partake in the English-language or other minority school systems, but they also maintain separate cultural traditions and institutions and often operate in French at work, making it difficult to pinpoint exactly where the boundaries of Montreal's English-speaking community lie. Montréal's English-speaking population became more diverse in the 20th century. Jewish migrants from Eastern Europe arrived in large numbers in the late 19th century, followed by Italians, both groups largely aligning with the English-speaking community. Less numerous, but also important, were the many black, Chinese and South Asian migrants who increased the visible minority proportion of anglophones; today, 24.2 per cent of anglophones are visible minorities. Moreover, most anglophones in Québec are now of non-English origin.[40]

Italians
[edit]
Main article: Italians in Montreal

Montreal's Italian community is one of the largest in Canada, second only to Toronto. With 250,000 residents of Italian ancestry, Montreal has many Italian districts, such as Little Italy, Saint-Leonard (Città Italiana), R.D.P., and LaSalle. Italian is the 3rd most spoken language in Montreal and in the province of Quebec.

Greeks
[edit]
Main article: Greek Canadians

Greek is the eighth language in importance. The Greek community remains vibrant: several neighbourhoods contain a number of Greek-owned businesses and local festivals and churches add to the multicultural character of the city. The neighbouring city of Laval also has a sizable Greek community, predominantly residing in the borough of Chomedey.

Eastern Europeans
[edit]

In 1931 the largest non-French, non-British ethnic group in St. Eusebe and St. Gabriel was the Poles.[43]

In 1931 the largest non-French, non-British ethnic group in Cremazie was the Czecho-Slovaks.[43]

In 1931 the largest non-French, non-British ethnic group in St. Marie was the Lithuanians.[43]

In 1931 the largest non-French, non-British ethnic group in St. Georges was the Finns.[43]

Jews
[edit]
Main article: Jews in Montreal

Montreal's Jewish community is one of the oldest and most populous in the country, formerly first but now second to Toronto and numbering about 100,000 according to the 2001 census. The community is quite diverse, and is composed of many different Jewish ethnic divisions that arrived in Canada at different periods of time and under differing circumstances.

Jews comprised 2.4% of the total Montreal population.[44]

Middle Eastern

[edit]
See also: Arab Canadians

According to CH (Montreal's multicultural channel) there are now over 117,000 people of Arab origin in Montreal. Montreal has sizeable communities of Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian origin. The main Arab district is the borough of Saint-Laurent, which contains an Arab population of about 32,000 (52 percent of the population).[citation needed]

In 1931 the Syro-Lebanese were the largest non-French and non-British ethnic group in Ville Marie.[43]

Lebanese
[edit]

According to the 2011 Census there were 190,275 Canadians who claimed Lebanese ancestry, with the largest concentration in Montreal, making them by far the largest group of people with Arabic-speaking roots.

Moroccans
[edit]

As of the 2001 Canadian Census there were over 16,000 Canadians of Moroccan descent in Montreal, about 75% of the total Moroccan population of Canada.[45]

Armenian
[edit]
L'École Arménienne Sourp Hagop

As of 2005 there were almost 30,000 ethnic Armenians in Montreal.[46] The Armenians first settled Canada in 1880. The first Armenian community in Montreal originally had 225 people.[46]

There are Armenian community institutions such as schools, youth organizations, and churches. The authors of "The Chameleon Character of Multilingual Literacy Portraits: Researching in "Heritage" Language Places and Spaces" wrote that in Montreal "there is no recognizable materially bounded Armenian neighborhood";[47] however, there are three Armenian schools in Montreal, as well as an AGBU Centre located in Ville Saint-Laurent and the Armenian Community Centre of Montréal, located in Ahuntsic-Cartierville.[48][49]

Berbers
[edit]

Especially from Algeria and Morocco, this immigration is recent and almost 90,000 Berbers live in Montreal.

Caribbean

[edit]
Main article: Black Canadians in Montreal

Additional West Indian women, from both the Francophone and Anglophone Caribbean, came to Montreal after the Domestic Immigration Program of 1955 was established.[50] Most settled in Little Burgundy.

Haitian
[edit]
See also: Canadians of Haitian ancestry

Montreal's Haitian community of 100,000 people is the largest in Canada. Large percentages of Haitians live in Montréal-Nord, Saint-Michel and R.D.P. Today, Haitian Creole is the sixth most spoken language in Montreal and the seventh most spoken language in the province of Quebec.[citation needed]

Latin American

[edit]
Main article: Latin American Canadian

Montreal is host to the second largest Latin American community in Canada at 75,400 (Toronto ranks first, with 99,290), but amongst major Canadian cities, has the highest Latin American concentration at 4.1% in comparison to Toronto's Latin American concentration of 2.9% as well as the highest concentration amongst major Canadian metro areas at 2.7% to Toronto GMA's 2.3% as of 2016. The majority of Latin American Canadians are recent immigrants arriving in the late 20th century who have come from El Salvador, Colombia, Mexico, Chile and Guatemala with relatively smaller communities from the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Venezuela, Nicaragua and Ecuador.[51] Spanish is currently the fifth most spoken language in Montreal.

On the other hand, the city is also home to 4,425 Brazilians who are part of the Portuguese-speaking community of Montreal.[52]

South Asian

[edit]

The term Indo-Canadian is typically used in Canada to refer to people from the many ethnic groups of the Republic of India, and other South Asian countries including Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Sometimes you will also hear the term 'East Indian.'[53] As of 1985 there were 9,000 Sikhs in the Montreal area. Around 35 of Air India Flight 182's passengers were Sikhs from Greater Montreal.[54] A memorial to AI182, located in Lachine, Montreal, opened in 2010.[55]

East & Southeast Asian

[edit]
Chinese
[edit]
See also: Chinese Canadian

As of 2006 Montreal has Canada's third largest ethnic Chinese population at 72,000 members.[56] As of 2005 there is an estimate of 42,765 ethnic Chinese in Montreal. Of the ethnic minorities, the Chinese are the fourth largest. National origins include Hong Kong, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and Singapore.[57]

The South Shore suburb of Brossard in particular has a high ethnic Chinese population, at 12% of its population.[58] Montreal also has a small Chinatown sandwiched in between Old Montreal, the Quartier international and downtown.

As of 2005 Sinoquebec is the newest Chinese-language newspaper in Montreal.[59] Others are Les Presses Chinoises and Sept Days.

Several Chinese-language special schools are in Montreal.[59] The Montreal Chinese Hospital is located in the city.

Japanese
[edit]
Main article: Japanese in Montreal

As of 2005 there were an estimated 2,360 ethnic Japanese in Montreal.[60] As of 2003 there was no particular place where ethnic Japanese were concentrated,[61] E. Bourgault wrote in Perspectives on the Japanese Canadian Experience in Quebec (Repartir à zéro: Perspectives sur l'expérience des Canadiens d'origine japonaise au Québec) that Japanese in Montreal historically "lived relatively anonymously" and that they "have avoided visible concentration as a collective, hoping to blend in, unnoticed into the larger population."[62]

Cambodians
[edit]

As of 1999 the Communauté Khmere du Canada (Khmer Community Association) and the Pagode Khmer du Canada (Khmer Buddhist Temple) cooperate with one another.[63]

Some Muslim Cham people also moved to Montreal.[64]

As of 1999 in Montreal duan chee give active help in resolving emotional issues with Khmer women, while this is not the case with duan chee in Toronto.[65]

Language

[edit]
Census tracts in Montreal identified by mother tongue language.
  Francophone (majority)
  Francophone (minority)
  Anglophone (majority)
  Anglophone (minority)
  Allophone (majority)
  Allophone (minority)

In terms of mother language (first language learned), the 2006 census reported that in the Greater Montreal Area, 66.5% spoke French as a first language, followed by English at 13.2%, while 0.8% spoke both as a first language.[66] The remaining 22.5% of Montreal-area residents are allophones, speaking languages including Italian (3.5%), Arabic (3.1%), Spanish (2.6%), Haitian Creole (1.3%), Chinese (1.2%), Greek (1.2%), Portuguese (0.8%), Romanian (0.7%), Vietnamese (0.7%), and Russian (0.5%).[66] In terms of additional languages spoken, a unique feature of Montreal among Canadian cities, noted by Statistics Canada, is the working knowledge of both French and English possessed by most of its residents.

Language most spoken at home
in the Montreal metropolitan area (CMA)
1996[67] 2001[68] 2006[69] 2011[70]
French 71.2% 72.1% 70.5% 70.4%
English 15.4% 14.8% 14.9% 14.0%
Other language 13.4% 13.1% 14.6% 16.6%
Note that percentages add up to more than 100% because
some people speak two or more languages at home.
Mother tongue languages (2006)[71]
Includes Multiple Responses
Language Greater Montreal Quebec Canada
French 65.8% 79.7% 22.0%
English 13.2% 9.0% 58.6%
Arabic 3.9% 2.1% 1.1%
Spanish 3.1% 1.8% 1.3%
Italian 3.1% 1.6% 1.3%
Creole 1.5% 0.8% 0.2%
Greek 1.1% 0.5% 0.4%
Chinese 1.1% 0.6% 1.3%
Portuguese 0.8% 0.5% 0.7%
Romanian 0.7% 0.4% 0.3%
Vietnamese 0.7% 0.4% 0.5%
Russian 0.6% 0.3% 0.5%
Persian 0.5% 0.3% 0.5%
Tagalog 0.4% 0.2% 1.2%
Armenian 0.4% 0.2% 0.1%
Polish 0.4% 0.2% 0.6%
Tamil 0.4% 0.2% 0.4%
Punjabi 0.3% 0.2% 1.4%
German 0.3% 0.2% 1.3%
Bengali 0.3% 0.1% 0.2%
Cantonese 0.3% 0.1% 1.2%
Urdu 0.3% 0.1% 0.6%
Mandarin 0.3% 0.1% 0.8%
Canada Census Mother Tongue - Greater Montreal, Quebec[72]
Census Total
French
English
French & English
Other
Year Responses Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop %
2021
4,246,060
 2,543,265 Decrease 0.34% 59.89% 474,735 Increase 6.7% 11.18% 81,470 Increase 72.78% 1.9% 990,820 Increase 8.8% 23.33%
2016
4,053,355
 2,551,955 Increase 6.1% 62.96% 444,955 Increase 1.1% 10.97% 47,150 Increase 14.89% 1.16% 910,605 Increase 8.57% 22.47%
2011
3,785,915
 2,395,525 Increase 2.8% 63.27% 439,845 Increase 3.1% 11.62% 40,400 Increase 35% 1.07% 832,245 Increase 3% 21.98%
2006
3,588,520
 2,328,400 Increase 2.27% 64.88% 425,635 Increase 4% 11.86% 26,855 Decrease 11.35% 0.75% 807,630 Increase 17.3% 22.5%
2001
3,380,645
 2,275,035 Increase 3.12% 67.29% 408,185 Decrease 4.4% 12.1% 29,935 Decrease 2.05% 0.89% 667,485 Increase 12.89% 19.74%
1996
3,287,645
 2,204,285 Increase 5.03% 67.04% 426,600 Decrease 4.4% 12.9% 30,550 Decrease 73.9% 0.9% 581,450 Increase 21.5% 17.68%
1991
3,127,245
 2,093,395 Increase 5.7% 66.94% 445,515 Increase 2.6% 14.2% 53,140 Decrease 66.7% 1.6% 456,670 Increase 24.5% 14.6%
1986
2,921,357
 1,974,115 Increase 1.9% 67.76% 433,095 Decrease 20.09% 14.82% 88,585 n/a 3.03% 344,970 n/a 11.8%
1981
2,828,349
 1,936,200 n/a 68.24% 520,485 n/a 18.3% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Canada Census Mother Tongue – Montreal, Quebec[72]
Census Total
French
English
French and English
Other
Year Responses Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop % Count Trend Pop %
2016
1,680,910
 833,280 Increase 1.75% 49.57% 208,140 Increase 0.93% 12.38% 20,705 Increase 18.79% 1.27% 559,035 Increase 4.19% 34.34%
2011
1,627,945
 818,970 Decrease 1.86% 50.3% 206,210 Increase 3.1% 12.67% 17,430 Increase 44.58% 1.07% 536,560 Decrease 1.93% 32.30%
2006
1,593,725
 834,520 Decrease 4.45% 52.36% 200,000 Decrease 2.92% 12.5% 12,055 Decrease 28.27% 0.75% 547,150 Increase 13.01% 34.33%
2001
1,608,024
 873,564 Increase 2.07% 54.32% 206,025 Decrease 4.21% 12.81% 16,807 Increase 14.02% 1.04% 484,165 Increase 13.72% 30.1%
1996
1,569,437
 855,780 n/a 54.53% 215,100 n/a 13.7% 14,740 n/a 0.94% 425,725 n/a 27.12%

2016 population by Mother tongue

[edit]

Ville de Montréal

[edit]
Top 30 languages Montréal, 2016[73] Population %
French 833,280 52.1
English 208,140 13.0
Arabic 95,165 5.9
Spanish 72,760 4.5
Italian 67,800 4.2
Creole 36,160 2.3
Mandarin 26,245 1.6
Vietnamese 18,115 1.1
Portuguese 17,130 1.1
Greek 16,935 1.1
Romanian 15,230 1.0
Russian 14,685 0.9
Cantonese 14,435 0.9
Farsi 12,585 0.8
Tagalog (Filipino) 10,770 0.7
Tamil 9,595 0.6
Bengali 9,290 0.6
Kabyle 8,460 0.5
Panjabi (Punjabi) 7,300 0.5
Polish 7,000 0.4
Urdu 6,580 0.4
Armenian 6,330 0.4
Yiddish 6,030 0.4
Khmer (Cambodian) 4,875 0.3
Turkish 4,535 0.3
Gujarati 4,075 0.3
German 3,990 0.2
Bulgarian 3,625 0.2
Korean 3,120 0.2
Ukrainian 2,995 0.2

Religion

[edit]

City of Montreal

[edit]

Religion in the City of Montreal (2021[74])

  Catholic Christianity (35.0%)
  Christian N.O.S (6.1%)
  Orthodox Christianity (3.2%)
  Protestant Christianity (2.6%)
  Other Christian (2.6%)
  No religion (31.0%)
  Islam (12.7%)
  Judaism (2.1%)
  Hinduism (1.8%)
  Buddhism (1.5%)
  Sikhism (0.9%)
  Other religions (0.6%)

The Greater Montreal Area is predominantly Roman Catholic; however, weekly church attendance in Quebec is among the lowest in Canada.[75] Historically Montreal has been a centre of Catholicism in North America with its numerous seminaries and churches, including the Notre-Dame Basilica, the Cathédrale Marie-Reine-du-Monde, and Saint Joseph's Oratory. Some 62.4% of the total population is Christian,[76] largely Roman Catholic (52.8%), primarily due to descendants of original French settlers, and others of Italian and Irish origins. Protestants which include Anglican, United Church, Lutheran, owing to British and German immigration, and other denominations number 5.90%, with a further 3.7% consisting mostly of Orthodox Christians, fuelled by a large Greek population. There is also a number of Russian and Ukrainian Orthodox parishes. Islam is the largest non-Christian religious group, with 154,540 members,[77] the second-largest concentration of Muslims in Canada at 9.6%. The Jewish community in Montreal has a population of 90,780. In cities such as Côte Saint-Luc and Hampstead, Jewish people constitute the majority, or a substantial part of the population. As recently as 1971 the Jewish community in Greater Montreal was as high as 109,480.[3] Political and economic uncertainties led many to leave Montreal and the province of Quebec.[78]

The religious breakdown of the population of Montreal is:

Religion (2021)[79]
Religion Population Percentage (%)
Christianity 853,205 49.5%
No religious affiliation 534,180 31.0%
Islam 218,395 12.7%
Judaism 35,930 2.1%
Hinduism 30,430 1.8%
Buddhism 26,395 1.5%
Sikhism 15,630 0.9%
Other religions 9065 0.5%

Metro Montreal

[edit]
Religious groups in Metro Montreal (1981−2021)
Religious group 2021[80] 2011[81] 2001[82] 1991[83][84] 1981[85][86]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Christianity 2,431,435 57.8% 2,790,920 74.38% 2,859,010 84.57% 2,737,050 88.55% 2,578,005 92.14%
Irreligion 1,200,090 28.53% 560,650 14.94% 258,295 7.64% 167,060 5.4% 88,650 3.17%
Islam 365,675 8.69% 221,040 5.89% 100,185 2.96% 41,215 1.33% 10,935 0.39%
Judaism 82,075 1.95% 83,200 2.22% 88,765 2.63% 96,710 3.13% 101,365 3.62%
Hinduism 45,565 1.08% 32,280 0.86% 24,075 0.71% 13,775 0.45% 6,415 0.23%
Buddhism 42,540 1.01% 47,350 1.26% 37,840 1.12% 27,905 0.9% 9,165 0.33%
Sikhism 22,990 0.55% 9,205 0.25% 7,930 0.23% 3,880 0.13% 1,555 0.06%
Indigenous spirituality 290 0.01% 200 0.01% — — — — — —
Other 15,785 0.38% 7,620 0.2% 4,550 0.13% 3,515 0.11% 1,950 0.07%
Total responses 4,206,450 98.01% 3,752,475 95.38% 3,380,645 98.67% 3,091,115 98.84% 2,798,040 98.93%
Total population 4,291,732 100% 3,934,078 100% 3,426,350 100% 3,127,242 100% 2,828,349 100%

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  • Maguire, Mary H., Ann J. Beer, Hourig Attarian, Diane Baygin, Xiao Lan Curdt-Christiansen, and Reiko Yoshida (McGill University). "The Chameleon Character of Multilingual Literacy Portraits: Researching in "Heritage" Language Places and Spaces" (Chapter 7). In: Anderson, Jim, Maureen Kendrick, Theresa Rogers, and Suzanne Smythe (editors). Portraits of Literacy Across Families, Communities, and Schools: Intersections and Tensions. Routledge, May 6, 2005. Start page 141. ISBN 1135615535, 9781135615536.

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity.
  2. ^ a b c Statistic includes total responses of "West Asian" and "Arab" under visible minority section on census.
  3. ^ a b c Statistic includes total responses of "Filipino" and "Southeast Asian" under visible minority section on census.
  4. ^ a b c Statistic includes total responses of "Chinese", "Korean", and "Japanese" under visible minority section on census.
  5. ^ a b Statistic includes total responses of "Visible minority, n.i.e." and "Multiple visible minorities" under visible minority section on census.
  6. ^ 2001-2016: Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity.

    2021: Statistic includes all persons belonging to the non-indigenous and non-visible minority “White” population group.
  1. ^ "Montréal en statistiques - Population totale". Ville de Montréal. Retrieved November 20, 2013.
  2. ^ a b "Montréal En Bref" (PDF). City of Montreal. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 28, 2011. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
  3. ^ a b "Statistical Tables — Religion". Statistics Canada Census. Gouvernement du Québec. Archived from the original on May 24, 2008. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
  4. ^ "Vol. 1 - Table 2". 1951 Canadian Census. University of Toronto. Archived from the original (XLS) on May 21, 2012. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
  5. ^ "Census Profile". Archived from the original on September 29, 2013.
  6. ^ "Census Profile". Archived from the original on September 29, 2013.
  7. ^ "Description of chart 1 – Population growth rates by census metropolitan area, 2012/2013, Canada". January 2001.
  8. ^ "Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), 2006 and 2001 censuses - 100% data". Statistics Canada, 2006 Census of Population. March 13, 2007. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
  9. ^ "Annual population estimates by census metropolitan area, Canada — Population at July 1". Statistics Canada. Retrieved February 2, 2014.
  10. ^ "Appendix: Table A1 Population by visible minority group and place of residence, scenario C (high growth), Canada, 2006". Statcan.gc.ca. March 9, 2010. Retrieved April 13, 2010.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 26, 2022). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  12. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 26, 2022). "Visible minority and population group by generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  13. ^ a b "Canada's Ethnocultural Mosaic, 2006 Census: Canada's major census metropolitan areas". Canada 2006 Census. Statistics Canada. February 11, 2010. Archived from the original on August 5, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2011.
  14. ^ Statistics Canada (2002). "Selected Ethnic Origins, for Census Subdivisions". Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. Retrieved February 22, 2007.
  15. ^ "Visible Minority Population and Population Group Reference Guide, 2006 Census". Archived from the original on December 11, 2008. Retrieved June 27, 2008.
  16. ^ "Visible Minority Population and Population Group Reference Guide, 2006 Census". 2.statcan.ca. August 11, 2009. Archived from the original on December 11, 2008. Retrieved September 1, 2009.
  17. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 27, 2021). "Census Profile, 2016 Census". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  18. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (November 27, 2015). "NHS Profile". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  19. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (August 20, 2019). "2006 Community Profiles". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
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  22. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 27, 2021). "Census Profile, 2016 Census". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  23. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (November 27, 2015). "NHS Profile". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  24. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (August 20, 2019). "2006 Community Profiles". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  25. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (July 2, 2019). "2001 Community Profiles". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  26. ^ a b "Proportion of visible minorities, Canada, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver, 1981 to 2001". Statistics Canada. Archived from the original on January 21, 2012. Retrieved January 11, 2023.
  27. ^ a b "Visible Minority Neighbourhood Enclaves and Labour Market Outcomes of Immigrants - ARCHIVED". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved March 29, 2023.
  28. ^ "2016 Census Data: Montreal (CMA)". Statistics Canada. February 8, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
  29. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (September 8, 2022). "Canada in 2041: A larger, more diverse population with greater differences between regions". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 4, 2023.
  30. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (September 8, 2022). "Projected population by racialized group, generation status and other selected characteristics (x 1,000)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 4, 2023.
  31. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 6, 2021). "Projections of the Indigenous populations and households in Canada, 2016 to 2041". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 4, 2023.
  32. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (October 6, 2021). "Projected population by Indigenous identity, age group, sex, area of residence, provinces and territories, and projection scenario, Canada (x 1,000)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 4, 2023.
  33. ^ "Focus on Geography Series, 2016 Census - Statistique Canada". February 8, 2017.
  34. ^ Originally intended to be the sole beneficiaries of Bill 101's allowance for English schooling, as per Saint-Leonard, Quebec#Saint-Leonard Conflict
  35. ^ Québec since confederation at The Canadian Encyclopedia, accessed September 1, 2019
  36. ^ Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Canada#Quebec[circular reference]
  37. ^ Yakabuski, Konrad (August 14, 2009). "Opinion: Neither practising nor believing, but Catholic even so". The Globe and Mail.
  38. ^ "Home Page Fall - Panoram Italia".
  39. ^ "Language conflict in Québec | Thematic Tours | Musée McCord Museum". Archived from the original on November 9, 2017. Retrieved November 8, 2017.
  40. ^ a b English-speaking Quebecer at The Canadian Encyclopedia, accessed September 1, 2019
  41. ^ "QCGN Community Priorities - Vitality for our English-speaking community". April 2021.
  42. ^ "Jewish General Hospital - 1910". Archived from the original on December 16, 2010.
  43. ^ a b c d e Rosenberg, Louis and Morton Weinfeld. Canada's Jews: A Social and Economic Study of Jews in Canada in the 1930s (Volume 16 of McGill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History). McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP), Oct 12, 1993. ISBN 0773563946, 9780773563940. p. 33.
  44. ^ "Demographics - Jewish Montreal". Federation CJA. Retrieved October 25, 2020.
  45. ^ Powell, John. Encyclopedia of North American Immigration (Facts on File library of American history). Infobase Publishing. January 1, 2009. ISBN 143811012X, 9781438110127. p. 195.
  46. ^ a b Maguire, et al, p. 151.
  47. ^ Maguire, et al, p. 154.
  48. ^ "The Incomparable Armenian Community in Montreal, Canada – Asbarez.com". Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  49. ^ Manjikian, Lalai. "Collective memory and diasporic articulations of imagined homes: Armenian community centres in Montreal." (2005).
  50. ^ Dubinsky, Karen. ""We Adopted a Negro": Interractial Adoption and the Hybrid Baby in 1960s Canada" (Chapter 11). In: Rutherdale, Robert and Magda Fahrni. Creating Postwar Canada: Community, Diversity, and Dissent, 1945-75. UBC Press, July 1, 2008. ISBN 077485815X, 9780774858151. Start: p. 268. CITED: p. 279. Retrieved on October 7, 2014.
  51. ^ "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada — Data table". 2.statcan.ca. October 6, 2010. Archived from the original on August 19, 2012. Retrieved January 2, 2012.
  52. ^ Statistics Canada. "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables (Montréal)". Retrieved August 26, 2015.
  53. ^ "https://www.myconsultant.ca/EN/Everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-Indian-community-in-Canada
  54. ^ "Sikhs mourn Air-India victims." The Montreal Gazette. Wednesday June 26, 1985. p. A1. Retrieved on Google News (p. 1/111) on October 22, 2014.
  55. ^ "Memorial to victims of Air India bombing inaugurated in Lachine." CTV Montreal. Sunday December 5, 2010. Retrieved on December 7, 2014.
  56. ^ "Visible minority groups, 2006 counts, for Canada and census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations - 20% sample data". Canada 2006 Census. Statistics Canada. April 2, 2008. Archived from the original on December 4, 2008. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
  57. ^ Maguire, et al, p. 155.
  58. ^ "2006 Canadian Census: Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlights Tables: Brossard, Quebec". Archived from the original on December 5, 2008. Retrieved August 13, 2008.
  59. ^ a b Maguire, et al, p. 156.
  60. ^ Maguire, et al, p. 161.
  61. ^ Maguire, Mary H. (McGill University). "Identity and Agency in Primary Trilingual Children's Multiple Cultural Worlds: Third Space and Heritage Languages" (Archive). In: Cohen, James, Kara T. McAlister, Kellie Rolstad, and Jeff MacSwan (editors). ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism. Conference held from April 30 to May 3, 2003. Published May 2005. p. 1423-1445. CITED: p. 1439 (PDF p. 17/24). "The other two schools, the Chinese Shonguo and Japanese Hoshuko are privately funded, rent space for their Saturday schools from mainstream educational institutions, and thus have no visible identifiable logo or physical presence as a particular 'heritage language school'."
  62. ^ Maguire, Mary H. (McGill University). "Identity and Agency in Primary Trilingual Children's Multiple Cultural Worlds: Third Space and Heritage Languages" (Archive). In: Cohen, James, Kara T. McAlister, Kellie Rolstad, and Jeff MacSwan (editors). ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism. Conference held from April 30 to May 3, 2003. Published May 2005. p. 1423-1445. CITED: p. 1438 (PDF p. 16/24). "The other two schools, the Chinese Shonguo and Japanese Hoshuko are privately funded, rent space for their Saturday schools from mainstream educational institutions, and thus have no visible identifiable logo or physical presence as a particular 'heritage language school'."
  63. ^ McLellan, Janet (University of Toronto). "Cambodian Buddhists in Toronto" (Chapter 5). In: McLellan, Janet. Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto. University of Toronto Press, 1999. ISBN 0802082254, 9780802082251. Start p. 133. - CITED: p. 141.
  64. ^ McLellan, Janet. "CAMBODIANS/KHMER." In: Magosci, Paul R. (editor). Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples (G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series). University of Toronto Press, 1999. ISBN 0802029388, 9780802029386. CITED: p. 296.
  65. ^ McLellan, Janet (University of Toronto). "Cambodian Buddhists in Toronto" (Chapter 5). In: McLellan, Janet. Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto. University of Toronto Press, 1999. ISBN 0802082254, 9780802082251. Start p. 133. - CITED: p. 148.
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  81. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (November 27, 2015). "NHS Profile". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
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  1. ^ Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an aboriginal identity.

Further reading

[edit]

General:

  • Lavoie, Nathalie and Pierre Serre. "From Bloc Voting to Social Voting: The case of Citizenship Issues of Immigration to Montreal, 1995-1996." Peace Research Abstracts 39, no. 6 (2002): 763–957.
  • Linteau, Paul-André. Histoire de la ville de Montréal depuis la Confédération. Montreal, Boreal, 1992.
  • Marois, Claude. "Cultural Transformations in Montreal since 1970." Journal of Cultural Geography 8, No. 2 (1988): 29–38.
  • McNicoll, Claire. Montréal, une société multiculturelle. Paris: Belin, 1993.
  • Monette, Pierre. L'immigrant Montréal. Montreal: Triptyque, 1994.

On specific ethnic groups:

  • Berdugo-Cohen, Marie and Yolande Cohen. Juifs marocains à montreal: témoignages d'une immigration moderne. Montreal: VLB, 1987.
  • Lam, Lawrence. From Being Uprooted to Surviving: Resettlement of Vietnamese-Chinese "Boat People" in Montreal, 1980-1990. Toronto: York Lanes Press, 1996.
  • Penisson, Bernard. "L'émigration française au Canada." In: L'émigration française: études de cas: Algérie-Canada-Etats-Unis. Paris: Université de Paris I, Centre de recherches d'histoire nord-américaine, 1985.
  • Robinson, Ira, Pierre Anctil, and Mervin Butovsku (editors). An Everyday Miracle: Yiddish Culture in Montreal. Montreal: Véhicule Press, 1990.
  • Robinson, Ira and Mervin Butovsky (editors). Renewing Our Days Montreal Jews in the Twentieth Century. Montreal: Véhicule Press, 1995.
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